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influenzae , a frequent coloniser of the upper respiratory tract, which may be due to CS potentiating reduced phosphoinositide 3-kinase signalling, triggered by the gram-negative bacteria.57 Using bioparticles from the gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli , AM phagocytosis has been shown to be impaired in patients with COPD who were current smokers when compared with patients with COPD who were ex-smokers.40 CS exposure also causes bacteria to become more virulent, with reduced lysis and resistance to macrophage killing such as seen in gram-positive bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus .4 In this study, CS exposure altered surface charge and hydrophobicity of the bacterial cell wall, which confers resistance to killing by antimicrobial peptides, both effecting the pathogenicity as well as host susceptibility by impairment of AM function
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Efforts to carry out proven tobacco control policies and evidence-based strategies are necessary to prevent all forms of tobacco useincluding flavored tobacco products
Gutlung axis modulation : Smoking-induced disruptions in short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production and bile acid metabolism (e.g., taurodeoxycholic acid elevation) may link gut dysbiosis to pulmonary inflammation and cancer, emphasizing the need for multi-omics integration to decode systemic microbial cross-talk
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